Anencephaly When the Neural Tube Fails to Close during...

Between day twenty-five and twenty-seven of pregnancy, normally before a woman even knows she is pregnant, the neural tube that ultimately becomes the brain and spinal cord begins to develop and eventually close. When the neural tube fails to close, the outcome is a neural tube defect called anencephaly. Anencephaly is a congenital birth defect and is characterized by the absence of the prosencephalon (fore-brain), cerebrum, cerebellum, and cranium. Part of the brain-stem is usually present. The head usually stops just above the eyebrows and slopes backwards. Since the head stops so suddenly, many babies appear to have bulging eyes. Some are born with cyclopia, the presence of only one eye centered in the middle of the forehead.†¦show more content†¦Exposure to high levels of mercury or lead may also be a contributing factor, as well as prolonged hyperthermia and obesity. Hispanic women are at a greater risk for having a child born with this type of defect. Once a woman has had an anencephalic child, she has a 1 in 10 chance of having another baby with this birth defect. In 2006, data was collected on 303 babies who were diagnosed with anencephaly and were not terminated. Of those 303 babies, about 40% were born prematurely (before 37 weeks) and 4% beyond 42 weeks. Two-thirds of the mothers were either induced or had a planned cesarean section for those born at term. Polyhydramnios was present in 30% of the cases which accounted for 60% of those born prematurely. When delivered by cesarean section, 4% died during birth, 53% died within twenty-four hours, 30% lived up to five days, and 13% lived longer than six days. For vaginal births, 37% of babies died during birth when a doctor or midwife ruptured the amniotic bag, opposed to 18% if the amniotic bag ruptured naturally. According to statistics, if the anencephalic child is delivered via cesarean section at full term, there is a better chance of that child being born alive, if only for a little while. Once the exposed brain comes into contact with the air, there is a great risk of infection. Most babies with this condition die from cardiorespiratoryShow MoreRelatedThe Effect of Neural Tube Defects on Healthcare1216 Words   |  5 PagesAccording to the Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica (2014), a neural tube defect is â€Å"any congenital defect of the brain and spinal cord as a result of abnormal development of the neural tube.† This birth defect is â€Å"the most common congenital defect of the central nervous system, affecting the brain and/or spinal cord of 300,000 newborns worldwide each year† (Ricks et al., 2012, p. 391). The exact cause of these central nervous system defects is unknown, but there are many contributing factors that are evidencedRead MoreDetecting Fetal Abnormalities Through Ultrasound2205 Words   |  9 Pagesbirth defects can be detected during pregnancy by an ultrasound. Some of these abnormalities include abdominal wall defect, orofacial cleft , anencephaly, and down syndrome. Although at this time ultrasound is the safest way to observe a fetus, risks are still associated with it. Ultrasound An ultrasound is a test that sends sound waves into the woman’s abdomen or vagina in order to create an image to observe how the fetus is developing within the womb (â€Å"Pregnancy Ultrasound,† n.d.). Some ofRead MorePregnancy And Its Effects On Pregnancy Essay3534 Words   |  15 PagesPregnancy begins with a fetus developing inside a women’s uterus, and ends with the birth of a baby. Pregnancy involves a variety of clinical laboratory tests that can provide important information from the beginning of pregnancy through the first days of the newborn’s life. A variety of laboratory tests are performed throughout pregnancy at different specified times. Ninety five percent of pregnancies result in a safe delivery of a healthy baby, but there are complications that can arise unexpectedlyRead MoreSci 241 Week 524609 Words   |  99 Pagesdifferent functions in the body To date, 13 substances have been identiï ¬ ed as vitamins essential in the diet (Table 8.1). They were named alphabetically in approximately the order in which they were identiï ¬ ed: A, B, C, D, and E. The B vitamins were ï ¬ rst thought to be one chemical substance but were later found to be many different substances, so the alphabetical name was broken down by numbers. Vitamins B6 and B12 are the only ones that are still commonly referred to by their numbers. Thiamin, riboï ¬â€šavin

The Neural Basis Of Free Will Criterial Causation Essay

As seen in the previous paragraph, Eddy Nahmias’s argument that scientists do not understand the human mind yet is wrong, and creates a hole in his argument. Also mentioned above, scientists say that the human minds simply take in sensual inputs, and make a decision off of these inputs. This argument is acknowledged through the impossibility of self-causation argument which Peter Ulric defines through his book, â€Å"The Neural Basis of Free Will: Criterial Causation†, where he explains the impossibility of self-causation argument down to a neurological level. He says that the definition of impossibility of self-causation comes down to mental events and neurological causal chains occurring in the mind, and the inability of these causal chains to be stopped because of the rules of causation. This means that once a mental event is set in motion, it cannot be altered. Thus, scientists often use this argument to declare that people do not have free will because once a menta l event sets a physical neurological event in motion, the resulting neurological causal chain of events cannot be stopped, but this is precisely where the solution arises. After outlining the impossibility of self-causation argument, Ulric points out that there is nothing that prevents neurons from changing their firing criteria for future events, and offers the following sequence of events as an example. First, new mental and physical requirements are set for a specific neuron. Then, new inputs are received in

Childcare and Education Unit 4 Free Essays

string(80) " devised pieces of equipment that encourage children to develop certain skills\." child Unit 4 – Assignment| Michelle Pieh| | Children Play| | Rebecca Myring| 11/16/2009| | Introduction Play is the main way in which children learn and therefore play affects all aspects of a child’s development. Valuing children’s play: Props should be encouraged. Allow the use of their own experience. We will write a custom essay sample on Childcare and Education Unit 4 or any similar topic only for you Order Now Own interests. Playing on their own should be encouraged. Work in a way that suits them. Adult encouragement to be engagement. Play as a way of communication. Recreate familiar themes. Transport resources to where they wish. Learn best when they are enjoying themselves. Allow for time and space. Facts about play: Through play children learn about their world. Play is considered to be a primary need of children. The stages of play change as a child grows older. The characteristics of play change as different stages of development are reached. All children go through the stages of play as they grow develop. Children develop at different rates therefore some children may take longer to go through a particular stage. D1/D7) Setting 1 – Zoo adventure play area Setting 2 – Park Setting 3 – Beach Setting 1 – A zoo adventure play area is an enclosed area containing play equipment. D7) It has wheel chair, pushchair/pram access. It has a variety of facilities ranging from a cafe with outdoor seating area for adults to sit and watch their children play to toilet facilities for all. In the play area there is specialised staff for children that have disabilities so they can help them join in with any games that are going on. The play area where the children can play has a safe outside area where children can play without parents worrying about the children getting hurt. The area is animal themed and the toys outside are animal shaped and patterned such as a swing in the shape of a lions mane and is yellow and orange to show it is a lions mane. A slide is in the shape of a zebra’s tongue the top of the steps is the head and the handles are the mouth opened wide and the slide is the tongue. Setting 2 – A park is an enclosed area where children can play without parents having to worry about their child going out of the park onto a street near a main road. There may be different parts in the park that are specially designed for each age range. For example: Babies/small children there may be a soft play area, bucket swings that a child can be harnessed into, small low sit on toys and a small slide. Aged 6 -10 children there may be a bigger slide, seesaw, roundabout, swings, small trampolines, climbing frames and tyre swings. Teenagers there may be basketball courts, tennis courts, football nets, running track, climbing wall/ abseiling wall, golf course, wire swings, zip wire, a weather pitch for all sports and a big trampoline that has a net around it to keep them safe whilst jumping. Setting 3 – The beach is a large area containing sand and water. The children like making sand castles. They also like feeling the different textures e. g. Water and sand mixed together. The children also have a chance to have a donkey ride. D7) There are also ramps for access for wheel chairs, push chairs/ prams. On the beach there needs to be parental supervision. D2) Age range for zoo – between 18-24 months to 16years Stage of play for the zoo is spectator aged between 18 months – 24months to 4 years and co – operative play for aged 4+ children. Age range for park – 2 years to 16 years Stage of play for the park is spectator 24 months to 4 years and co –operative for aged 4+ children. Age range for beach – 2 years to 16years Stage of play is spectator 24 months to 4 years and co –operative for aged 4+ children. Co – operative play is where children play together with shared goals. Play can be quite complicated and children are supportive. D3) The type of play that goes on is: Zoo – physical play Park – pretend play Beach – discovery play Zoo – At the zoo children would be involved in physical play. They would do this by finding different equipment to play on. Using all the different equipment they would exercising which would form their muscles, stamina, balance and Co-ordination. (Tassoni P, Hucker K, 2005, Pg 163) Park – At the park they would find different equipment to play on. They would pretend to act out things and pretend that they are other people. This will enable children to use their imagination and develop their own imaginative ideas. (Walker M, Beaver, M Brewster, J Neaum, S and Tallack, J 2008 Page 195) Beach – They would discover sand and water. They would also discover mixing sand and water. They may find shells, crabs, star fish and jelly fish. D4) Zoo is physical play – An example of a zoo play area would be playing on the monkey bars which would be developing their gross motor skills. This will develop whole body and limb movements, co-ordination and balance. Walker M, Beaver, M Brewster, J Neaum, S and Tallack, J 2008 page 194) Park is pretend play – An example of pretend play at a local park would be a child playing on a climbing frame that has a wheel on it and they are pretending it is a ship/boat, aeroplane/helicopter. Beach is discovery play – An example of a beach would be discovering different shells, sea life, boats, and textures of sand by building sand castles. Mixing sand and water together to make sand pies. Developing knowledge and understanding of the world. D5) Beach discovery play and Maria Montessori theory. The main points of Maria Montessori’s theory are: Children pass through particular development stages. This is the essential for the child to be able to learn. * Montessori developed a structured education programmed based on these stages, including a number of specially devised pieces of equipment that encourage children to develop certain skills. You read "Childcare and Education Unit 4" in category "Papers" * Limited emphasis is placed on counting, reading and writing these will follow once the basic social and emotional development has taken place. * A Childs natural will to learn should be encouraged to foster a lifelong motivation for learning. * Children should be encouraged to work alone. Montessori felt the best learning occurred when children were focused, silent and completely absorbed in a task. * Montessori did not believe in free play and did not encourage children to develop their own ideas –play needed to have a learning focus. (Garhart M C, 2000, Pg 21-37) Maria Montessori believed that children learn by doing practical activities and by playing outdoors. D6) Setting 1 – zoo adventure play area * In the adventure play area with children aged 18-24 months to 16 years, an obstacle course could be arranged to include either a route over a high climbing frame or a lower route through it. The risks would be bumping into others, slipping and falling. I have chosen this activity as it will allow children to understand risks e. g. heights, bumping of the body parts. The challenge would be learning their limitations. Setting 2 – park In the park with children aged 2 years to 16 years, a park play area could be set up in the shape of a trim trail to include a variety of apparatus that provide challenges. The risks would be bumping into others, slipping and falling. The risks that the children will learn to understand are bumping into other children, slipping on play equipment and falling off of play equipment. The challenge that they might have to overcome is to see how high they can swing on a swing whilst feeling comfortable. Setting 3 – beach On the beach with children aged 2 years to 16 years, provide activities e. g. digging and making sand castles which challenges them to be sensible when handling the sand. The risk would be getting sand in their/other people’s eyes, risk of drowning in the sea, risk of being bitten by crabs and getting stung by jelly fish. The risks could be getting sand in their eyes, getting bitten by animals and drowning in the water. The challenge they will have to vercome is learning about what can happen if they touch certain animals. C1/D7) Setting 1 – zoo adventure playground Challenge and risk activity chosen in (D6) was obstacle course. Resources that would be used: * Climbing frame with monkey bars, lower and higher side. * Tunnels. * Under and over bars. Health and safety equipment: * Safe area. * Helmet. * Knee pads and elbow pads. * Safety mats, non slip floor. * Supervision. * Appropriate footwear, clothing. These resources have been chosen because: For children’s own welfare and safety. They allow children to achieve the learning outcomes that have been planned for. They meet individual children’s needs- D7. Provides different levels of play for age range and ability. Setting 2 – park Challenge and risk activity chosen in (D6) was trim trail. Resources that would be used: * Apparatus e. g. swings, balance walking logs, climbing nets, tyres, swinging logs. Health and safety equipment: * Safe area. * Knee pads, elbow pads. * Helmet. * Supervision. * Appropriate footwear and clothes These resources have been chosen because: For children’s own welfare and safety. They are appropriate to age range and stage of development of the children. They meet individual children’s needs – D7. Setting 3 – Beach Challenge and risk chosen in (D6) was digging sandcastles. Resources that would be used: * Spade. * Bucket. Health and safety: * Clean area. * Safe area. * Goggles. * Supervision from parent’s/carers. These resources have been chosen because: Encourages exploration. Encourages open minded play. They meet individual needs – D7. B1) Giving children activities that challenge them and make them understand risks by: Build’s up resilience as they become more aware of challenges that they will experience in the future and it will help them to become more comfortable, confident when faced with the kind of challenge. Bruce D. Perry M. D. Ph. D Professor of Child Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Sciences). Develops an awareness of potential hazards. Younger children’s awareness of hazards is further raised through staff’s gentle reminders, for example, prior to activities, such as cooking. Children benefit from ind ividual towels and soap dispensers, which reduce the risk of cross? infection. To, ensure that the risk of potential hazards is minimised. Children also develop confidence and self-esteem because staffs build positive, trusting relationships with them. (Ofsted Creche report) Prevents boredom. As young children don’t understand time the way grown-ups do but boredom is not always a bad thing, it can also get children thinking creatively and can pay to take a more active role in preventing boredom. (Sanders, M. R. ; Christenson, A. P. (1985). Pg’s 13, 101-117). Builds confidence. As they do the activities again again they will have confidence in doing the activity as they will know how to do it. Potential learning opportunity such as they learn that you have to follow instructions to get to the end product. Provides mental stimulation. E. g. helps children to function for longer. Maria Montessori developed a method for young children, which was rooted in the senses and involves manipulating everyday objects and following highly structured activities that engage children but rarely allow them to fail. Develops essential life skills. E. g. money, telling the time, addition/subtraction and measurements etc. Activities that provide children with a challenge and risks: Climbing frame – know their own limitations but not put off but to overcome it and be determine. Hopefully next time they won’t climb as high and only go half way so they learn from previous times. B2) Adult led sessions are often used to introduce children to exploration and investigation through play. This helps them to develop their own play agenda and ideas. Children appreciate adults who help to keep their play flowing as long as they don’t take over. How they would do this? Exploration: Involve them in activities. E. g. Building Sandcastles, Finding sea shells and stones. Encourage them to learn about new things. For example colours, numbers and letters. Plan activities that relate to children’s experiences. E. g. Places were on holiday. Encourage activities that encourage exploration. E. g. Making ice or jelly. Offer a variety of activities. E. g. collage making, beading or outdoor play. How they would do this for investigation: Provide equipment. E. g. Bucket and spade or binoculars and magnifying glass. Provide plenty of time. To allow children to finish the activity so they get the whole potential. Present activities that allow solving problems e. g. floating and sinking. Allow the children to work together. So they can work as a team member and listen to other children’s ideas and try to solve things together. Introduce new subjects and topics. To help develop further knowledge. A1) Name of theorist wrote about in D5 was Maria Montessori. Maria’s main ideas and theories are: Children pass through particular developmental stages. This is essential for the child to be able to learn. Montessori developed a structured education programme based on these stages including a number of specially developed pieces of equipment that encourage children to develop certain skills. Limited emphasis is placed on counting reading and writing. Children should be encouraged to work alone. To encourage confidence in what they think. Montessori did not believe in free play and did not encourage children to develop their own ideas. Influences on today’s practice: There are many Montessori schools throughout Europe usually privately run. The method promotes a carefully planned environment that neither allows children total freedom nor imposes activities on them. Some nurseries follow the plan completely and purchase Montessori equipment and use her theories with a flexible programme. (Garhart M C, (2000) Page 21-37) What difference (if any) might there be if the adult was aware of this theory? If the adult was aware of the theory the adult would be aware of discovery play and be able to plan activities in more depth. They will also be aware of the benefits of discovery play. How do you think the theory will affect an adults understanding of children’s play? They might think that something that the child is playing is not discovery. So this might not give the children as many opportunities. A*) The role of the adult in providing activities and supporting children’s play is to provide relevant resources to enable children to do specific activities e. g. ard making needs – card, glue, sticking things/materials. An adult also sets out a play area for the children to play in. Adults make suggestions to widen the children’s knowledge and to support them when playing. Adults should also ask the children questions to develop their understanding. The adult considers the children’s needs e. g. provide activities for different levels of needs â€⠀œ (D7). I had no idea that there was so much to play. I had no idea that there was a lot of planning towards play and how play was actually structured rather than just giving a child a toy and telling them to play. I am now more confident in advising children when they are playing. I am now in a better position as I would be able to extend opportunities by asking the child questions. I have learned all the different stages and types of play. The types of play are:| The stages of play are| Creative play. | Solitary aged 0-2 years. | Pretend play. | Spectator aged 2-2 and a half years. | Physical play. | Parallel aged 2 and a half – 3 years. | Manipulation play. | Associative – 3 – 4 years. | Discovery play. | Co – operative aged 4+ years. | Bibliography websites used www. teachingexpertise. com http://nationalstrategies. standards. dcsf. gov. uk www. ofsted. gov. uk Www. raisingchildren. net. au Bibliography books used Tassoni P, Hucker K (2005) Planning Play and the Early Years 2nd Edition. Oxford – Heinemann (Page 163) Walker, M Beaver, M Brewster, J Neaum, S and Tallack, J (2008) Child care and Education CACHE Level 2 Cheltenham; Nelson Thornes LTD (Page 195) Garhart M C, (2000) Theories of childhood—an introduction to Dewey, Montessori, Erickson, Piaget and Vygestsky. Redleaf Press – Yorkton (Page 21-37) Sanders, M. R. ; Christenson, A. P. (1985). A comparison of the effects of child management and planned activities training across five parenting environments. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, Pages 13, 101-117. Professional People Bruce D. Perry, M. D. , Ph. D. , is the Thomas S. Trammell Research Professor of Child Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Sciences, Baylor College of Medicine; and Chief of Psychiatry, Texas Children’s Hospital, Houston, Texas. How to cite Childcare and Education Unit 4, Papers

Introductory Sociology Social Class

Question: Discuss about the Introductory Sociology for Social Class? Answer: The society has been divided into several classes according to the occupation, economic status, standard of thinking and education of the people from the very beginning. In this essay the social class system, the factors of this classification, its impact on different social aspects and health condition of the people belonging to each class has been discussed. Social classes refer to a set of concepts in the political theories and social sciences in which people can be categorized into several hierarchical social groups. When a group of people occupy a similar position in the society in terms of status, wealth and influence, they fall under the same social class. According to the Marxist theory a class is a combination of subjective and objective similarities among a group of people that is they have a common perception, relationship and a common interest (Pintelon et al., 2013). The social class is categorized based on some factors and they are: Income, power, health and nutrition, wealth, education, occupation, ethnicity and race. These dimensions of social class are inter-related and play important role in understanding the society (Weis Dolby, 2012). Income is the earning of a person from investments or work and all the assets owned by an individual, such as cash, saving accounts, stocks, real estate etc. are referred as wealth. Income is dependent on the occupation, and depending on the income and wealth the style of living, health, nutrition, education etc (Kraus et al., 2011). differs between the social classes. With respect to these factors the society is mainly divided into four categories (Figure 1) that are: The upper class The middle class The working class The lower class The upper class: This class is again divided into two groups, one is upper-upper class and another is lower-upper class. The lower-upper class Re those upper class people who make money from business venture, investment etc. and the upper-upper class implies to those aristocrat high class groups of people who have maintained a status for generations and are wealthy by birth (Shaeff, 2005). Some another important examples of lower middle class people are Professional actors athletes and successful entrepreneurs. However both of these groups have a huge amount of money that is a lot more than they could spend and that is why they have much leisure time to cultivate their interests and hobbies. This particular class of people lives a luxurious life and nourishes their culture. They hold an influence and power both nationally and universally (Pintelon et al., 2013). The middle class: The middle class is the next step down in the social class system and is also called sandwich class. They are again divided into two sub classes based on their education, prestige and wealth (Grossmann Varnum, 2010). Lower middle class people are comparatively less educated with an income equal to the national average, such as small business owners, managers, secretaries etc. and the upper middle class includes the highly educated professional and business people with a slightly higher income than the national average, such as lawyers, CEOs, and doctors. The largest amount of upward, downward or horizontal social mobility occurs at this level (Weis Dolby, 2012). The working class: The people who belong to this class have a little education. They are commonly engaged as manual labor with a little or no social status and have an income slightly lesser than the average national pay scale. This group includes people like plumber, carpenter, electricians, cashiers, factory workers (Bilton, 2012). They do not have much scope of the development of their career. Another difference of working class and middle class is in their behavior, values, living standard, lifestyle, culture and sometimes this people have to put themselves into risk while working. Most of the people of any society belong to this class (Wilkinson Pickett, 2010). The Lower class: The lower class is the working poor category having a minimum or no educational qualification. They generally work at a minimum wage and are very often employed as part time workers. This group of people often suffers from poverty, unemployment, homelessness, lack of health, nutrition and hygiene. Lower class people maintain a minimum level of social or cultural status (Shah, 2010). Figure 1: Social Class (Source: Stephen et al., 2012) Class is an important factor in understanding of any society and analyzing various factors related to it. By analyzing the social class and the people belonging in each of the classes, the socio-economic condition of the society can be understood (Stephens et al., 2014). The social classes reflect many sociological contexts such as economy, political system, style of leaving, health, education, etc (Naidoo Wills, 2008). there are several theoretical models related to the social classes proposed by sociologists and philosopher, which gives a clear idea of social classification helps to understand and demonstrate the society and the societal factors (Pintelon et al., 2013). According to Marx, the war between the classes that control the production and those who produce the products or serves the society that is the conflict between the capitalists and the wage-workers is the history of all the civilized societies. He claims that, the capitalists accumulate the wealth to such a point that they acquire enough power to dominate the other classes of society. He blames the lower class people for such discrimination as the lower class people are in a mass amount, they can easily overthrow the capitalists and bring equality to the society (Kraus et al., 2011). Another theory is formulated by Max Weber and it states that, the education and skills of a person determines his or her class or position in the society. He noted that many aristocrat families lacked economically but had enough political power however some wealthy families were deficient in power and prestige (Giddens, 2013). Observing all these factors he stated his new theory where there were three factors. The three key factors of the Weberian theory are; the economic position in society that is class, self esteem and social honor that is status and the capability to get their way in spite of others resistance that is power (Wilkinson Pickett, 2010). The social class of a person has significant effect on his or her physical health, ability of affording the medical facilities and nutrition. It has been noticed that the lower class people often experience several of issues related to health. The primary factor that leads them to this problem is their economic status (Davey, Gray Seale, 2001). Very often they are unable to utilize the healthcare facilities that the other classes can afford easily, however generally the people of this class tend to have an increased rate of health related problems. The poor class often suffers from malnutrition and due to a lack of place for living they have to survive in a congested and unhygienic environment (Stephens et al., 2012). For the above mentioned reasons the lower class families face a higher rate of infant mortality, cardiovascular problems, infections, cancer etc. Additionally, sometimes this class of people have to work in a much more hazardous condition and yet they are provided with very less or no health insurance (Shah, 2010). The working class and a few middle class people can afford the primary healthcare facilities and have a much better health conditions compared to the poor class people. However, in the case of some critical diseases or surgical cases such as cancer, renal failure, brain surgery, heart surgery they face much difficulty to afford the services (Davey, Gray Seale, 2001). They generally do not suffer from any problem related to health and hygiene and a number of health insurance are available to them. The healthcare services are quite easily available for the people of the middle class. And the upper class can very easily afford any healthcare services. And in their luxurious daily life they have the chance to spend money and time to take care of their health (Leinonen et al., 2011). From this essay it can be concluded that the social class system has a profound impact on the history of the society as well as on the modern society. The different aspects of the society such as education, health, family-life, political participation religious and spiritual affiliation vary with the persons belonging with each hierarchy of social class system. The social class varies with the different regions of a country, that is, the upper class people of a society may be considered upper middle class in another society depending on the overall standard of that particular society. The overall standard and condition of a society is greatly influenced by its social class. References: Bilton, T. (2012).Introductory Sociology(4th ed.). Davey, B., Gray, A., Seale, C. (2001).Health and disease. Buckingham, England: Open University Press. Giddens, A. (2013).Sociology(6th ed.). Naidoo, Wills,. (2008).Health Studies: an introduction (Sociology Health chapter). Shaeff, M. (2005).Sociology Healthcare: an introduction for nurses. Grossmann, I., Varnum, M. E. (2010). Social class, culture, and cognition.Social Psychological and Personality Science. Kraus, M. W., Horberg, E. J., Goetz, J. L., Keltner, D. (2011). Social class rank, threat vigilance, and hostile reactivity.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 0146167211410987. Leinonen, T., Pietilinen, O., Laaksonen, M., Rahkonen, O., Lahelma, E., Martikainen, P. (2011). Occupational social class and disability retirement among municipal employeesthe contribution of health behaviors and working conditions.Scandinavian journal of work, environment health, 464-472. Pintelon, O., Cantillon, B., Van den Bosch, K., Whelan, C. T. (2013). The social stratification of social risks: The relevance of class for social investment strategies.Journal of European social policy,23(1), 52-67. Shah, A. (2010). Poverty facts and stats.Global Issues,20. Stephens, N. M., Hamedani, M. G., Destin, M. (2014). Closing the social-class achievement gap a difference-education intervention improves first-generation students academic performance and all students college transition.Psychological science,25(4), 943-953. Stephens, N. M., Markus, H. R., Fryberg, S. A. (2012). Social class disparities in health and education: Reducing inequality by applying a sociocultural self model of behavior.Psychological review,119(4), 723. Weis, L., Dolby, N. (Eds.). (2012).Social class and education: Global perspectives. Routledge. Wilkinson, R., Pickett, K. (2010). The spirit level.Why equality is better for.